K172 Mid Term

= Korean Original Monotheism

“Tan’gun Worshipped Hananim.”

1. Gale: “One Great One”

–epistemological monotheism

하늘 (heaven) = 하나 (one)

2. Hulbert: Trinitarian Understanding of Tan’gun Myth

— Trinitarian monotheism

3. Underwood: Primitive monotheism from the myths

— Comparative religious monotheism

Korean Theism and

Christian Monotheism

— Korean Terms for Christian God

— Koreanization of Christian God

3. The Term Question in Korea (1)

French RC missionaries (1837 – 1908)

Terms for God = Translations of Chinese Terms

Tianzhu 텬쥬 天主 was adopted

Shangdi 샹뎨 上帝

Shangzhou 샹쥬 上主

Protestants missionaries used Hanănim

insisting that Koreans had primitive monotheism before missionaries came to Korea

C. Japanese Researchers

Journalists, 1905-1910

Okita Kinjo

Usuda Zanun

Torigoe Seiki

Journalists/Scholars, 1908-1945

Imamura Tomo

Professional Scholars, 1916-1945

Murayama Chijun

Akamatsu Chijo

Akiba Takashi

Similarities b/w Japanese and Koreans; The same ancestor 同祖同根

= Policy of total assimilation 同化

2. Differences b/w

Japanese and Koreans:

shamanism= inferior, superstitious,

premodern, female religion

= justification of colonization

Korean beliefs in spirits were at the root of Korean consciousness; it should not be ignored in changing Korea

Japanese government = a gardener who tries to graft a new branch = need to study the tree and the soil

7-3

B-1. Missionary Iconoclasm against “Demon Worship”

Received Tradition: Strict Prohibition of Demon Worship by RC & P in 19th C

Performed Ceremony: Burning Fetishes and Destroying Devil House

Preparation

A Crowd gathered

Gathering Fetishes

Burning Fetishes

Matching – Hymns – Prayer – Hymns

Short Preaching

Result: Home Worship

“Christian Home” and “Home Altar”

3. Applied Theory: the Germ Theory, Defeats Evil Spirits

B. The first Encounter between Protestantism and shamanism

7-2

1

II. Points of Conflict

2. Buddhist Idol Worship

Icons (Images)

OT: no images

NT: based on the incarnation of Jesus Christ

Eastern Orthodox: panels → iconoclasm (8th c) → icons

Western RC: icons and statues

Islam : no faces (iconoclasm)

Protestantism: Lutheranism—icons and status acceptable

Calvinism/Puritans—no icons, but pictures of Jesus acceptable

Idols: Buddhist/Daoist/shamanist–condemned

II. Points of Conflict

8-2

Worship or Veneration? Ancestor Worship, 1884-1910 Shinto Shrine Worship, 1936-1945 “points of conflict”

Lecture 8

T h e M a k i n g

o f

k o r e a n C h r i s T i a n i T y

Protestant Encounters with Korean Religions 1876 – 1915

s u n g – D e u k o a k

The Making of Korean Christianity

The Nagel Institute for the Study of World Christianity Calvin College

Joel A. Carpenter Series Editor

SWC S T U D I E S I N

W O R L D C H R I S T I A N I T Y

The Making of Korean Christianity Protestant Encounters with Korean Religions,

1876–1915

Sung-Deuk Oak

Baylor University Press

© 2013 by Baylor University Press Waco, Texas 76798-7363

All Rights Reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior permission in writing of Baylor University Press.

Cover Design by Nita Ybarra Cover Image: Members of the Session of the Central Presbyterian Church

in Pyongyang, Korea in 1909. S. A. Moffett, Kil Sŏnju, and G. Lee are in the center. From George T. B. Davis, Korea for Christ (New York: Revell, 1910), 20.

Book Design by Diane Smith

eISBN: 978-1-60258-577-5 (e-PDF)

This E-book was converted from the original source file by a third-party vendor. Readers who encounter any issues with formatting, text, linking, or readability are encouraged to notify the publisher at [email protected] baylor.edu. Some font characters may not display on older Kindle devices.

To inquire about permission to use selections from this text, please contact Baylor University Press, One Bear Place, #97363, Waco, Texas 76798.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Oak, Sung-Deuk. The making of Korean Christianity : Protestant encounters with Korean religions, 1876–1915 / Sung-Deuk Oak. 437 pages cm. — (Studies in world Christianity) Includes bibliographical references (pages 347–396) and index. ISBN 978-1-60258-575-1 (hardback : alk. paper) 1. Christianity and other religions—Korea—History. 2. Christianity— Korea—History. 3. Protestant churches—Korea—History. 4. Korea— Religion. I. Title. BR128.A77O25 2013 275.19’08–dc23 2012043662

For Yoo Hyun, Eun Hyun, and Hyun Bhin

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vii

Series Foreword

It used to be that those of us from the global North who study world Christianity had to work hard to make the case for its relevance. Why should thoughtful people learn more about Christianity in places far away from Europe and North America? The Christian religion, many have heard by now, has more than sixty percent of its adherents living outside of Europe and North America. It has become a hugely multicul- tural faith, expressed in more languages than any other religion. Even so, the implications of this major new reality have not sunk in. Studies of world Christianity might seem to be just another obscure specialty niche for which the academy is infamous, rather like an “ethnic foods” corner in an American grocery store.

Yet the entire social marketplace, both in North America and Europe, is rapidly changing. The world is undergoing the greatest trans-regional migration in its history, as people from Africa, Asia, Latin America, and the Pacific region become the neighbors down the street, across Europe and North America. The majority of these new immigrants are Chris- tians. Within the United States, one now can find virtually every form of Christianity from around the world. Here in Grand Rapids, Michigan, where I live and work, we have Sudanese Anglicans, Adventists from the Dominican Republic, Vietnamese Catholics, Burmese Baptists, Mexican Pentecostals, and Lebanese Orthodox Christians—to name a few of the Christian traditions and movements now present.

Christian leaders and institutions struggle to catch up with these new realities. The selection of a Latin American pope in 2013 was in

viii — Series Foreword

some respects the culmination of decades of readjustment in the Roman Catholic Church. Here in Grand Rapids, the receptionist for the Catho- lic bishop answers the telephone first in Spanish. The worldwide Angli- can communion is being fractured over controversies concerning sexual morality and biblical authority. Other churches in worldwide fellowships and alliances are treading more carefully as new leaders come forward and challenge northern assumptions, both liberal and conservative.

Until very recently, however, the academic and intellectual world has paid little heed to this seismic shift in Christianity’s location, vitality, and expression. Too often, as scholars try to catch up to these changes, says the renowned historian Andrew Walls, they are still operating with “pre-Columbian maps” of these realities.

This series is designed to respond to that problem by making avail- able some of the coordinates needed for a new intellectual cartography. Broad-scope narratives about world Christianity are being published, and they help to revise the more massive misconceptions. Yet much of the most exciting work in this field is going on closer to the action. Doz- ens of dissertations and journal articles are appearing every year, but their stories are too good and their implications are too important to be reserved for specialists only. So we offer this series to make some of the most interesting and seminal studies more accessible, both to academics and to the thoughtful general reader. World Christianity is fascinating for its own sake, but it also helps to deepen our understanding of how faith and life interact in more familiar settings.

So we are eager for you to read, ponder, and enjoy these Baylor Studies in World Christianity. There are many new things to learn, and many old things to see in a new light.

Joel A. Carpenter Series Editor

ix

Contents

Illustrations, Tables, Diagrams, and Maps xi Preface and Acknowledgments xv Abbreviations xxiii

Introduction 1

1 God 33 Search for the Korean Name for God, Hanănim

2 Saviors 85 Images of the Cross and Messianism

3 Spirits 141 Theories of Shamanism and Practice of Exorcism

4 Ancestors 189 Confucian and Christian Memorial Services

5 Messages 221 Chinese Literature and Korean Translations

6 Rituals 271 Revivals and Prayers

Conclusion 305 Appendix 317 Glossary 337 Bibliography 347 Index 397

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xi

Illustrations, Tables, Diagrams, and Maps

Illustrations

Figure 1 Giulio Aleni (1582–1649), T`ien-chu chiang-sheng ch`u- hsiang ching-chieh 天主降生出像經解 [Illustrated Exposi- tions of the Incarnation of the Lord of Heaven] (Fukien: Chin-chiang Church, 1637), plate 26. Courtesy of Hough- ton Library, Harvard University. (p. 99)

Figure 2 A. Schall, Jincheng Shuxiang [Images Presented to the Chong- zhen Emperor], 1640, as shown in Yang Guangxian, Budeyi 不得已 (1664). Courtesy of UCLA East Asian Library. (p. 99)

Figure 3 Bixie jishi 辟邪紀實 (1861), 13, plate 1. (p. 106) Figure 4 John Bunyan, The Pilgrim’s Progress, 51st edition (Paisley:

A. Weir and A. M’Lean, 1757), 40. (p. 110)

Figure 5 John Bunyan, Tian lu li cheng 天路歷程 [The Pilgrim’s Progress], trans. William Chalmers Burns (N.p., 1852). July 5, 2010. Courtesy of the National Library of Australia. (p. 111)

Figure 6 John Bunyan, Tenro rekitei: iyaku 天路歴程 意譯 [The Pilgrim’s Progress: Free Translation], ed. and trans. Yosimine Satō 佐藤喜峰 (Tokyo: Jūjiyashoho, 1879). Courtesy of UCLA East Asian Library. (p. 111)

xii — The Making of Korean Christianity

Figure 7 John Bunyan, The Pilgrim’s Progress, with notes by the Rev. Robert Maguire, illustrated by H. C. Selous, Esq. and M. Paolo Priolo (London: Cassell, Petter, & Galpin, 1863), 73. (p. 112)

Figure 8 John Bunyan, T’yŏllo yŏkchŏng 텬로력뎡 [The Pilgrim’s Progress], trans. James S. Gale (Seoul: Korean Religious Tract Society, 1895), 38b. (p. 112)

Figure 9 Inferred Tonghak Yŏngbu. Roderick S. Bucknell and Paul Beirne, “In Search of Yŏngbu: The Lost Talisman of Korea’s Tonghak Religion,” Review of Korean Studies 4, no. 1 (2001): 213. (p. 116)

Figure 10 Inferred Tonghak Yŏngbu. Drawing by Sung-Deuk Oak. (p. 116)

Figure 11 The Designs of the Pulsap Used in the Chosŏn Period. Yi Seunghae and Ahn Pohyun, “Chosŏn sidae hoegyŏk hoeg- wagmyo ch’ult’o sab e taehan koch’al” [A Study of the “Sap” Excavated from the Tombs of Lime-Covered or Lime Coffins], Munhwajae 42, no. 2 (2008): 49. (p. 118)

Figure 12 The Sorae Church and Its Flag of St. George’s Cross, 1898. “Mission Albums of Miss Esther Lucas Shields.” Courtesy of the Samuel Hugh Moffett Collections, Princeton Theo- logical Seminary Archives. (p. 122)

Figure 13 A Typical Flagpole of a Rural Church, ca. 1902. Mission- ary Review of the World (February 1908): 101. Courtesy of UCLA Library. (p. 127)

Figure 14 Japanese Red Cross Society Hospital in Incheon, Korea, 1904. American Monthly Review of Reviews (June 1904): 667. Courtesy of UCLA Library. (p. 132)

Figure 15 Japanese Military Rule: Execution of Korean Farmers, 1904. Homer B. Hulbert, The Passing of Korea (London: Heinemann, 1906), 210. (p. 134)

Figure 16 Execution of Korean Patriots, 1907. B. L. Butnam Wheale, Coming Struggle in East Asia (London: Macmillan, 1909), 518. (p. 135)

Illustrations, Tables, Diagrams, and Maps — xiii

Figure 17 A Political Cartoon of The Sinhan Minbo, 1909. The Sinhan Minbo 신한민보 (September 15, 1909). Courtesy of UCLA Library. (p. 137)

Figure 18 Missionary Baptism, 1910. Yorozu chōhō 萬朝報 (March 21, 1910). Courtesy of UCLA Library. (p. 137)

Tables (in Appendix)

Table 1 The Names for God Used in the Korean Scriptures, 1882–1905

Table 2 Examples of the Korean Terms Adopted by the Ross Ver- sion, 1887

Table 3 Chinese Terms Adopted by Korean Versions from the Del- egates’ Version, 1887 and 1904

Table 4 The Most Popular Chinese Tracts and Books in 1893

Table 5 Chinese Books and Tracts Used in Korea without Transla- tion, 1880–1900

Table 6 Chinese Tracts Translated and Published in Korean, 1881–1896

Table 7 The Title and the First Stanza of “The Rock of Ages”

Table 8 Various Editions of “Jesus Loves Me, This I Know”

Table 9 Growth of Presbyterian Churches in Korea, 1907–1912

Table 10 General Statistics of the Christian Missions and Churches in East Asia, 1910

Table 11 Educational Statistics of the Korea Mission, PCUSA, 1907– 1908

Table 12 Statistics of the Presbyterian Churches in Korea, 1910

Diagrams (in Appendix)

Diagram 1 Religious and Political Factors in the Iconography of the Cross, 1801–1910

Diagram 2 Translation of Christian Texts into Korean, 1876–1915

xiv — The Making of Korean Christianity

Maps (in Appendix)

Map 1 Early Protestant Missionary Routes to Korea, 1879–1887

Map 2 Territorial Comity among the Presbyterian and Methodist Missions in Korea, 1912

xv

Preface and Acknowledgments

Korean Protestant Christianity has been known for two things: rapid growth and conservative theological orientation. American evangeli- calism has been regarded as a driving force to that effect since the arrival of the first medical missionary to Korea, Horace N. Allen (1858–1932), in 1884, during Japanese colonial rule in 1910–1945, and in the post- war period of the North–South division since 1953. Already by 1900 there were more than twenty-five thousand Protestant Christians, about two hundred thousand in 1910, and then about eight million in 1990. As a result, the monolithic image of rapidly expanding fundamentalis- tic Korean Protestantism, influenced by American evangelicalism, has dominated its historiography. The missionary literature has lauded the Christian triumph over heathen Korean religions. Conservative Korean theologians and pastors have reproduced similar rhetoric to boost the domestic and foreign missions as well as to buttress their hegemony over any emerging new liberal theology and in their efforts to suppress lenient attitudes toward non-Christian religions. The conservative camp has tried to justify these positions by creating the image of intensely conservative pioneering missionaries. In contrast, the liberal or pluralist camp has crit- icized the exclusivist missionary theology, its Orientalism, and cultural imperialism that had destroyed traditional Korean religious culture and imposed a Western form of Christianity on Koreans. Most non-Korean scholars have not paid much attention to the history of Protestantism in Korea because it appeared to be a simple story of expansion and thus boring. This book challenges such a lineal historical understanding of

xvi — The Making of Korean Christianity

Korean Protestant churches and tries to affirm that the culturally sen- sitive and biblically sound identity can go hand in hand with a vitally growing constituency and social relevancy. Above all, the contemporary critical situation of declining Protestant churches in Korea calls for a seri- ous reflection on their first decades for their renewal.

This book explores the history of the localization of North Ameri- can Christianity in Korea through its encounters with Korean religions at the turn of the twentieth century. Using archival materials, this book not only delineates the transpacific transmission of North American Christianity to Korea but also investigates trans–Yellow Sea interactions between naturalized Chinese Protestant mission theories, methods, and literature and emerging Korean Protestantism. The main concern, how- ever, lies in that third integration: the synthesis of Anglo-American–Sino Christianity with congenial elements of Korean religions. This geograph- ical and cultural convergence produced a unique Korean Protestantism in the first generation, and this indigenous identity contributed to the rapid progress of Protestant Christianity as a new national religion in modern Korea. The agency of Korean Christians in this triple integra- tion is particularly emphasized. This is a case study on the interplay between the globalization of Christianity in East Asia and the incultura- tion of Christianity as a national and local response.

In their encounters with Korean religions—a mixture of sha- manism, Confucianism, Buddhism, Daoism, Tonghak, and popular beliefs—young North American missionaries, influenced by the sea- soned missionaries in China, dropped their initial goal of radically dis- placing Korean “heathenism” and otherness with Western Christianity. The heuristic approach that followed was based on what they learned from studying and observing Korean religions and Korean Christians’ interpretation of the relationship between Western Christianity and Korean religions. In order to answer to both indifferent and respon- sive audiences and to become competitive in the rapidly changing reli- gious market, evangelical missionaries, as a utilitarian approach, were open to negotiations and accommodations to the congenial elements of Korean religions. Their evangelical mission theology firmly maintained the finality and superiority of Christ in relation to Korean religions, but they searched for the points of contact within Korean religions that had some foundation for accepting the Christian gospel. The mis- sionaries’ combination of confrontational and conciliatory approaches, cross-cultural sensitivity, and moderate fulfillment theory encouraged

Preface and Acknowledgments — xvii

Korean Christians to create an indigenous Christianity that grew rap- idly in the liminal space of turn-of-the-twentieth-century Korea, where trans nationality, translations, traditions, modernity, and coloniality interacted. North American Christianity and its missionary work had a profound impact on early modern Korean religious culture and society; and vice versa, Korean culture and spirituality shaped Protestant mis- sionary endeavors. The other side of the expansion of Western Christi- anity in Korea was its indigenization as Korean Christianity.

Missionaries and Korean leaders presented Protestantism as a faith to fulfill spiritual aspirations and prophetic longings of the Korean people. They proclaimed that the fulfillment of Korean religions by Christ would be similar to the fulfillment of Judaism by Christ. With- out ignoring discontinuities and differences, continuities and means for coexistence were emphasized. The mutual interdependence of Confu- cianism and Christianity, for instance, was depicted in 1898 through the metaphor of beautiful trees by a sunny spring. Although the prun- ing of traditional religions’ withered branches was needed, the sunlight of Western Christianity would make Korean Confucian trees luxuriant and fruitful, whereas the latter could reflect the brilliance of the spring. Christianity grown in New York, Chicago, Nashville, or Toronto was not brought to Korea in a pot, nor were its seeds scattered on the streets of Seoul and Pyongyang, but a well-naturalized Anglo-American-Sino Christianity was grafted onto Korean religions, so that a new Korean Christianity could flourish. The universal biblical model of the Chris- tian fulfillment of traditional religions took on a local form and facil- itated the invention of Korean Christianity, in particular among the plurality of globalized Christianities in non-Christian lands.

This book revises the image of the first-generation North American missionaries and Korean Protestant Christians as the fundamentalist destroyers of Korean religious cultures and instead describes them as moderate evangelicals whose fulfillment theory paved the way for the indigenization of Protestant Christianity in Korea. They searched for the preparations for the gospel in Korean religious culture—such as the monotheistic name for God, Hanănim, from the triune god of the founding shamanistic myth of Tan’gun—and Christianized those points of contact to proselytize in Korea. Though early twentieth-century fulfillment theory was not free from spiritual imperialism, it was the most liberal missionary attitude toward non-Christian religions at that time. The book argues that many representative first-generation North

xviii — The Making of Korean Christianity

American missionaries and Korean Protestant Christians were open- minded enough to accept the most advanced contemporary mission theology of religions. This is a specific case study of the cross-cultural theological development by mainline North American missionaries dur- ing the period of high imperialism. It challenges the generally accepted interpretation of mainline evangelical (Presbyterian and Methodist) missionaries’ role in that period and mitigates the common charges of cultural imperialism, white supremacy, and religious triumphalism.

The book discusses not only various points of conflict between mainline North American Christianity and multiple religions in Korea such as ancestral rite, spirit worship, and idolatry, but also their con- genial points of contact in the ideas and practices of monotheism, millenarianism, morality, and vernacularism in the context of nation building, modernization, and anti-Japanese colonialism. The combina- tions of intolerance and tolerance to the otherness in Korean religions and the ongoing process of negotiations across the boundaries of West- ern and Eastern religions formulated the indigenous form of Protestant Christianity on Korean soil.

Finally, this book’s thesis and findings confirm the general ideas that the globalization of Christianity goes together with the localization and plurality of Christianity; that authentic Christian mission works need networking partnerships among the diverse forms of local Christianity; and that world Christianity, as the totality of such an ongoing mutual friendship and enrichment, encourages open-mindedness to other reli- gious cultures and confidence in the Christian faith as well. The making of Korean Protestant Christianity is a good example of the globalization and localization of Christianity, and the first modernity Korea experi- enced was such a Christian modernity that facilitated the acceptance of the West from the foundation of the East.

The introduction is a critical and historical reflection of self-imposed interpretations of the first encounters between Protestant Christianity and Korean religions. It challenges the polarized conventional interpre- tations, which have relied on the prepackaged guidance of others rather than on one’s own examination of historical evidence.

Chapters 1, 2, and 3 address the contextualization of the Christian Trinity—God (monotheism, the name for God, the term question), Sav- ior (images of the cross, Christology, and messianic eschatology), and spirits (pneumatology, demon possession, and exorcism). Discussing a genealogy of the term “Hanănim,” chapter 1 examines a doctrinal side

Preface and Acknowledgments — xix

of Christianity in Korea and looks at it as a religion of intellectuals. It emphasizes the historical connections and mutual theological influ- ence among various Chinese, European, North American, and Korean groups, and the complex process of inventing a new Korean Protestant term for God, Hanănim, from the sky god of Korean shamanism to the Christian monotheistic God. Chapter 2 investigates the created images of Christ through the images of the cross and the flag of the cross. It covers the material, symbolic, and social aspects of Korean Protestant- ism as well the characterization of it as a religion of people in crisis. Chapter 3 deals with the conflicts and negotiations between Korean sha- manism and Protestantism, between the shamanic idea of disease and Western germ theory, and between missionaries’ Orientalist discourse on demon possession and shamanic healing ceremonies. It explores the spiritual and psychological sides of Korean Christianity, as a religion of women in particular. It stresses missionaries’ changing position on sha- manism and the continuous practice of Christian exorcising shamanic spirits from Koreans. Chapter 1 deals with the encounters of Protes- tantism with shamanism and Confucianism, chapter 2 discusses those with Tonghak and folk religion, and chapter 3 focuses on encounters with shamanism, which encompassed popular Buddhism and Daoism in many instances.

The next three chapters (chapters 4, 5, and 6) also recognize the importance of symbols, rituals, and tangible materials as well as printed texts in the understanding of Korean Protestantism, a new modern reli- gion in Korea. Chapter 4 investigates the Chinese background of Korean Protestantism’s ongoing prohibitive theology of ancestor worship, North American missionaries’ policies and Korean Christians’ attitudes, and the formation of Christian theology of filial piety and an indigenous memorial service as alternatives to the traditions. It reveals the encoun- tering of Confucianism and Christianity in the realms of anthropology, soteriology, and morality. Chapter 5 analyzes social classes of the church members and Korean translations of Chinese Christian literature (apolo- getics, Scriptures, and hymns) in order to identify the vernacularization of the Christian message. Chapter 6 focuses on prayers invented during the revival movement in the first decade of 1900. Chapter 4 empha- sizes the confrontational nature and the transformative power of Prot- estantism when it encountered premodern Korean Neo-Confucianism and its tight family system. The process of the demarcation in the Con- fucian practice reveals the serious conflicts and compromises between

xx — The Making of Korean Christianity

evangelical Protestantism and Chosŏn Neo-Confucianism. Chapter 5 touches on Confucianism and partly deals with Buddhism, and chapter 6 mainly discusses Daoism. I present the indigenized Korean Protestant- ism more visibly in the final two chapters.

This book is an expansion of the studies published in my disserta- tion of 2002. I lost an opportunity to publish it as it was, given by the American Society of Missiology in 2002, due to my teaching job at the University of California–Los Angeles (UCLA), other research projects, and above all the change to the target audience. The main audience of my dissertation was seminarians, ministers, and theologians of the Christian churches. My appointment at the Department of Asian Lan- guages and Cultures of UCLA, however, forced me to write for general readers and diverse Koreanists. I do not think that I have completely succeeded in accommodating the changed audience. If you find some biased perspectives and expressions in this book, please let me know so I can avoid them in further research.*

In 2008 I was awarded a generous grant to facilitate the writing of this book by the International Center for Korean Studies (ICKS), affili- ated with the Research Institute of Korean Studies, Korea University, Seoul. I was able to revise the manuscript extensively and add several new chapters with their generous support. ICKS was established in 2003 to support scholarship and exploration of Korea in the humanities and social sciences and to promote new research in Korean studies for a wide international audience. I would like to express my profound gratitude to professor Cho Sungtaek, director of ICKS; its editorial board; and reviewers of the Korean studies book series.

In the process of writing, UCLA and my department have provided me with research grants and nonteaching or sabbatical quarters. Spe- cial thanks go to the following, who are globally renowned scholars and my respected colleagues—Professors Robert E. Buswell Jr., John B. Duncan, Namhee Lee, Sung-Ock Sohn, Timothy L. Tangherlini,

* Korean words in the text are rendered using the McCune-Reischauer system, with the exception of proper names, such as Seoul, Pyongyang, and Incheon, for which alternative names are well established. Korean names follow the standard order—family name first—unless a particular name is traditionally rendered in West- ern order. In footnotes and bibliography, Korean names in the English source follow the original renderings. Unless a source is specified, all translations of Korean texts are mine.

Preface and Acknowledgments — xxi

Christopher P. Hanscom, and David C. Schaberg. I could not have fin- ished this project without their moral support and timely guidance. I owe a great debt of love to Mr. Im Dongsoon and Mrs. Im Mija of the Los Angeles Youngnak Presbyterian Church. Their generous donation created the Im Endowment Chair of Korean Christianity at UCLA in 2007, and my appointment as its first holder provided me the time and space to write this book.

Since I began to study the history of Korean Christianity in 1984, I have had several significant mentors and supporters. Dr. Yi Mahn- yol guided my studies in Korea from 1984 to 1993. My interest in the Koreanization of Western Christianity developed into my doctoral dis- sertation under the guidance of Professor Dana Lee Robert of Boston University School of Theology. I hope this book can repay my academic debt to my mentors. I also acknowledge those individuals and institu- tions that have munificently given research grants and project funds over the past eight years. The Henry Luce Foundation provided for my work as Luce Postdoctoral Fellow of Korean Christianity at the UCLA Center for Korean Studies from 2002 to 2003 and from 2005 to 2007. The Reverend Ha Yongjo of the Onnuri Community Church in Seoul gave me a grant to work as a research fellow at the same center from 2003 to 2005. To my great sadness, he passed away in August 2011. From 2003 to 2009, the Korean Bible Society awarded me a grant to put together three volumes of the society’s historical documents. In the same period, the Institute of Korean Studies of Yonsei University funded me to make the five-volume series H. G. Underwood and L. H. Underwood Papers. The Korean Nurses Association has funded me to research the nursing history of Korea since 2010. These grants have helped me to study diverse aspects of Korean Protestantism and revise this book. I owe a debt of gratitude to Professor Marion Eggert of Ruhr University Bochum in Germany. Her invitation to the Käte Hamburger Kolleg program as a research fellow in 2012 provided me with the time to finalize the manuscript.

Writing a book on the history of early modern Korea requires various kinds of assistance from archives and libraries. I would like to show my appreciation for the generous and professional support I received from the archivists and librarians of the following institutes—the American Bible Society Archives (New York), the British and Foreign Bible Soci- ety Archives, …

Korean Spirits & the Christian Holy Spirit

Theories of Shamanism and

Practice of Exorcism

1894-1910

Lecture 7-1